Researchers at the University of Bristol say 17.2 per cent of UK protests end in arrests compared to an international average of 6.3 per cent.

Only Australia had a higher rate of arrests at 20.1 per cent, while Norway took third place with a rate of 15.1 per cent.

However, just 0.2 per cent of UK protests involved police violence and there were no recorded killings in the UK of climate and environmental protesters.

By comparison, the countries with the lowest arrest rates — such as Uganda, Peru, Brazil and France — tended to have the highest levels of police violence.

Killings were also more common in countries with low arrest rates, particularly Brazil, the Philippines, India and Peru.

The figures are included in a new 30-page report on the criminalisation and repression of climate and environmental protests.

The report concludes: “Our most overarching recommendation is that the ongoing criminalisation of climate and environmental protest needs to stop and to some extent be reversed.

“In that sense, we concur with the UN Secretary General in that countries should focus on acting on climate change and environmental destruction instead of criminalising and repressing actors who call for such action.

“This means that governments, legislatures, courts and police forces should operate with a general presumption against criminalising climate and environmental protest.

“Instead, climate and environmental protest should be regarded as a reasonable response to the urgent and existential nature of the climate crisis, and activists engaged as stakeholders in a process of just transition.”